Analysis of source–sink organ dynamics in kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) at different plant ages

Siti Auliya Rahma; Rahmat Budiarto; Syariful Mubarok

doi:10.24198/kultivasi.v24i3.66455

Analysis of source–sink organ dynamics in kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) at different plant ages

Siti Auliya Rahma, Rahmat Budiarto, Syariful Mubarok

Abstract

Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) is a leafy spice commodity widely used as a culinary ingredient, in bio-pharmaceuticals, and as a raw material for essential oil production. Despite its high demand, leaf productivity remains relatively low, highlighting the need for improved cultivation practices. A better understanding of source–sink dynamics is essential, as leaf production is strongly influenced by the balance between assimilate-producing and assimilate-consuming organs. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the source-sink capacity of kaffir lime plants of different ages as a preliminary step toward identifying cultivation strategies to enhance leaf production. The experiment was conducted at Bale Tatanen experimental field, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang. This work used a randomized complete block design with five replications and three age treatments: A = 1 year, B = 2 years, and C = 3 years. The results showed the source-to-sink ratio in 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old plants were 53:47, 50:50, and 48:52, respectively. As kaffir lime plants grow older, their source–sink balance shifts because older plants allocate assimilates more efficiently to developing organs. In this study, increasing plant age was associated with a greater capacity to develop sink organs, which in turn supports leaf expansion and overall leaf productivity.This study offers baseline information on the source–sink proportions of kaffir lime plants at different ages, providing a foundation for improving cultivation practices. The findings support better harvest timing and more accurate yield estimation to enhance planning efficiency.

Keywords

Citrus; Roots; Source-capacity; Sink-capacity; Shoots

Full Text:

PDF

References

Abidin MRZ, Ishak FAC, Ismail IA, Juhari NH. 2020. Issues and Challenges of Malaysian Local Herbs toward the Development of Local Herbs-Based Culinary Products. Food Studies, 10(3): 13–30. https://doi.org/10.18848/2160-1933/CGP/v10i03/13-30

Afzal RA, Pennells J, Yamauchi Y, Annamalai PK, Nanjundan AK, Martin DJ. 2022. Lignocellulosic plant cell wall variation influences the structure and properties of hard carbon derived from sorghum biomass. Carbon Trends, 7(1): 1–12.

Amarullah. 2021. Sink source relationship dalam tanaman. Banda Aceh: Syiah Kuala University Press.

Anuradha, Goyal R, Bishnoi C. 2017. Assimilate partitioning and distribution in fruit crops: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6(3): 479–484.

Asaoka M, Badel E, Ferjani A, Nishitani K, Hamant O. 2024. Contributions of lignification, tissue arrangement patterns, and cross-sectional area to whole-stem mechanical properties in Arabidopsis thaliana. Journal of Plant Research, 137(5): 773–783.

Bielczynski LW, Łaçki MK, Hoefnagels I, Gambin A, Croce R. 2017. Leaf and plant age affects photosynthetic performance and photoprotective capacity. Plant Physiology, 175(4): 1634–1648.

Brant AN, Chen HYH. 2015. Patterns and mechanisms of nutrient resorption in plants. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 34(5): 471–486.

Budiarto R, Mubarok S, Nanda MA, Nabiyyu M, Haris M, Jaya IS. 2023. The increase in kaffir lime leaf production due to gibberellin is diminished by pruning. Horticulturae, 9(9):1018.

Budiarto R, Poerwanto R, Santosa E, Efendi D, Agusta A. 2022. Comparative and correlation analysis of young and mature kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC) leaf characteristics. International Journal of Plant Biology, 13(3): 270–280.

Budiarto R, Wathoni N, Mubarok S, Sauman J. (2024). Recent overview of kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC) dual functionality in food and nutraceuticals. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 18(1): 101384.

Burnett AC. 2019. Source–sink relationships. eLS, 1(1): 1–27.

Burnett AC, Rogers A, Rees M, Osborne CP. 2018. Nutrient sink limitation constrains growth in two barley species with contrasting growth strategies. Plant Direct, 2(1): 1–13.

Burnett AC, Rogers A, Rees M, Osborne CP. 2016. Carbon source–sink limitations differ between two species with contrasting growth strategies. Plant Cell and Environment, 39(11): 2460–2472.

Campany CE, Medlyn BE, Duursma RA. 2017. Reduced growth due to belowground sink limitation is not fully explained by reduced photosynthesis. Tree Physiology, 37(1): 1042–1054.

Carvalho P, Foulkes MJ. 2019. Roots and uptake of water and nutrients. In: Crop Science. Springer Science+Business Media New York. p. 107–130.

Chang, T. G., & Zhu, X. G. (2017). Source–sink interaction: a century old concept under the light of modern molecular systems biology. Journal of Experimental Botany, 68(16) : 4417-4431.

Chen J, Liu L, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Sun H, Song S, Li C. 2020. Nitrogen fertilization increases root growth and coordinates the root–shoot relationship in cotton. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11: 880.

Chen Q, Lu X, Guo X, Xu M, Tang Z. 2021. A source-sink model explains the difference in the metabolic mechanism of mechanical damage to young and senescing leaves in Catharanthus roseus. BMC Plant Biology, 21: 154.

Cheng S, Wang Q, Manghwar H, Liu F. 2022. Autophagy-mediated regulation of different meristems in plants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(11): 1–15.

Czedik-Eysenberg A, Arrivault S, Lohse MA, Feil R, Krohn N, Encke B, Stitt M. 2016. The interplay between carbon availability and growth in different zones of the growing maize leaf. Plant Physiology, 172(2): 943–967.

Dhami N, Cazzonelli CI. 2021. Short photoperiod attenuates CO2 fertilization effect on shoot biomass in Arabidopsis thaliana. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 27(4): 825-834.

Doidy J, Wang Y, Gouaille L, Goma-Louamba I, Jiang Z, Pourtau N, Le Gourrierec J, Sakr S. 2024. Sugar transport and signaling in shoot branching. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(23).

Durand M, Mainson D, Porcheron B, Maurousset L, Lemoine R, Pourtau N. 2018. Carbon source–sink relationship in Arabidopsis thaliana: the role of sucrose transporters. Planta, 247(3): 587–611.

Fatichi S, Leuzinger S, Körner C. 2014. Moving beyond photosynthesis: From carbon source to sink-driven vegetation modeling. New Phytologist, 201(4): 1086–1095.

Fatichi S, Pappas C, Zscheischler J, Leuzinger S. 2019. Modelling carbon sources and sinks in terrestrial vegetation. New Phytologist, 221(2): 652–668.

Feng G, Luo H, Zhang Y, Gou L, Yao Y, Lin Y, Zhang W. 2016. Relationship between plant canopy characteristics and photosynthetic productivity in diverse cultivars of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Crop Journal, 4(6): 499–508.

Fernie AR, Bachem CW, Helariutta Y, Neuhaus HE, Prat S, Ruan YL, Sonnewald U. 2020. Synchronization of developmental, molecular and metabolic aspects of source–sink interactions. Nature Plants, 6(2): 55-66.

Goldschmidt EE, Koch KE. 2017. Citrus. In: Photoassimilate distribution in plants and crops: source-sink relationships. Routledge. p. 797-824.

Guada G, García-González I, Pérez-de-Lis G, Vázquez-Ruiz RA, Montserrat-Martí G. 2018. Dry matter content during extension of twigs, buds and leaves reflects hydraulic status related to earlywood vessel development in Quercus pyrenaica Willd. European Journal of Forest Research, 137(1): 307–319.

Haque MA, Sakimin SZ. 2022. Planting arrangement and effects of planting density on tropical fruit crops—A review. Horticulturae, 8(6): 1–17.

Hartmann H, Adams HD, Hammond WM, Hoch G, Landhäusser SM, Wiley E, Zaehle S. 2018. Identifying differences in carbohydrate dynamics of seedlings and mature trees to improve carbon allocation in models for trees and forests. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 152(1): 7–18.

Irving LJ. 2015. Carbon assimilation, biomass partitioning and productivity in grasses. Agriculture, 5(4): 1116-1134.

Jansson C, Vogel J, Hazen S, Brutnell T, Mockler T. 2018. Climate-smart crops with enhanced photosynthesis. Journal of Experimental Botany, 69(16): 3801-3809.

Kocurek M, Kornas A, Wierzchnicki R, Lüttge U, Miszalski Z. 2020. Importance of stem photosynthesis in plant carbon allocation of Clusia minor. Trees, 34(4): 1009-1020.

Koevoets IT, Venema JH, Elzenga JTM, Testerink C. 2016. Roots withstanding their environment: Exploiting root system architecture responses to abiotic stress to improve crop tolerance. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7(1): 1–19.

Koley S, Raorane ML, Junker BH. 2019. Shoot tip culture: a step towards 13C metabolite flux analysis of sink leaf metabolism. Plant Methods, 15(1): 48.

Körner C. 2015. Paradigm shift in plant growth control. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 25: 107–114.

Kukah ASK, Xiaohua J, Osei-Kyei R, Perera S. 2024. How carbon trading contributes to reduction in emission of greenhouse gases: a narrative literature review. Journal of Facilities Management, 23(3): 463–479.

Lambers H, Oliveira RS, Pons TL. 2019. Growth and allocation. In Plant Physiological Ecology. Cham: Springer International Publishing, p. 385–449.

Leng H, Zhou L, Yan W. 2025. Variations in leaf photosynthesis and its limitations at different canopy positions in mature camphor trees. Forests, 16(4).

Li SY, Hussain SB, Vincent C. 2024. Response of carbon fixation, allocation, and growth to source–sink manipulation by defoliation in vegetative citrus trees. Physiologia Plantarum, 176(3): e14304.

Liu L, Hao L, Zhang Y, Zhou H, Ma B, Cheng Y, Tian Y, Chang Z, Zheng Y. 2022. The CO2 fertilization effect on leaf photosynthesis of maize (Zea mays L.) depends on growth temperatures with changes in leaf anatomy and soluble sugars. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: 1–15.

Lopez G, Ahmadi SH, Amelung W, Athmann M, Ewert F, Gaiser T, Seidel SJ. 2023. Nutrient deficiency effects on root architecture and root-to-shoot ratio in arable crops. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: 1067498.

Lv X, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Fan S, Kong L. 2020. Source-sink modifications affect leaf senescence and grain mass in wheat as revealed by proteomic analysis. BMC Plant Biology, 20(257): 1–17.

Milne RJ, Offler CE, Patrick JW, Grof CP. 2015. Cellular pathways of source leaf phloem loading and phloem unloading in developing stems of Sorghum bicolor in relation to stem sucrose storage. Functional Plant Biology, 42(10): 957–970.

Nam H, Gupta A, Nam H, Lee S, Cho HS, Park C, Hwang I. 2022. JULGI-mediated increment in phloem transport capacity relates to fruit yield in tomato. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 20(8): 1533–1545.

Nath AJ, Lal R, Das AK. 2015. Managing woody bamboos for carbon farming and carbon trading. Global Ecology and Conservation, 3: 654–663.

Nunes LJR, Meireles CIR, Gomes CJP, Ribeiro NMCA. 2020. Forest contribution to climate change mitigation: Management oriented to carbon capture and storage. Climate, 8(21): 1–20.

Nuranisa S, Sudiana E, Yani E. 2020. Hubungan umur dengan stok karbon pohon duku (Lansium parasiticum) di Desa Kalijajar Kecamatan Kaligondang Kabupaten Purbalingga. BioEksakta: Jurnal Ilmiah Biologi Unsoed, 2(1): 146–151.

Pawar R, Rana VS. 2019. Manipulation of source-sink relationship in pertinence to better fruit quality and yield in fruit crops: A review. Agricultural Reviews, 40(3): 200–207.

Plavcova L, Jansen S. 2015. The role of xylem parenchyma in the storage and utilization of nonstructural carbohydrates. In Functional and Ecological Xylem Anatomy. Springer, p. 209–234.

Plavcová L, Hoch G, Morris H, Ghiasi S, Jansen S. 2016. The amount of parenchyma and living fibers affects storage of nonstructural carbohydrates in young stems and roots of temperate trees. American Journal of Botany, 103(4): 603–612.

Poorter H, Jagodzinski AM, Ruiz‐Peinado R, Kuyah S, Luo Y, Oleksyn J, Sack L. 2015. How does biomass distribution change with size and differ among species? An analysis for 1200 plant species from five continents. New Phytologist, 208(3): 736–749.

Punyasu N, Thaiprasit J, Kalapanulak S, Saithong T, Postma JA. 2024. Modeling cassava root system architecture and the underlying dynamics in shoot–root carbon allocation during the early storage root bulking stage. Plant and Soil, 507(1): 863–880.

Putra SP, Santosa S, Salsinha YCF. 2023. Waterlogging and salinity stress affecting growth and morphological character changes of Limnocharis flava. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 24(1).

Rademacher T, Fonti P, LeMoine JM, Fonti MV, Bowles F, Chen Y, Richardson AD. 2022. Insights into source/sink controls on wood formation and photosynthesis from a stem chilling experiment in mature red maple. New Phytologist, 236(4): 1296–1309.

Savage JA, Clearwater MJ, Haines DF, Klein T, Mencuccini M, Sevanto S, Turgeon R, Zhang C. 2016. Allocation, stress tolerance and carbon transport in plants: How does phloem physiology affect plant ecology? Plant Cell and Environment, 39(4): 709–725.

Shen N, Zhao Y, Deng R. 2020. A review of carbon trading based on an evolutionary perspective. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 12(5): 739–756.

Singh SK, Nath V, Swati Sharma ESM. 2017. Source-sink relationship in litchi versus mango: A concept. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(3): 500–509.

Smith MR, Rao IM, Merchant A. (2018). Source-Sink Relationships in Crop Plants and Their Influence on Yield Development and Nutritional Quality. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(1):1889.

Sonnewald U, Fernie AR. 2018. Next-generation strategies for understanding and influencing source–sink relations in crop plants. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 43: 63–70.

Speck T, Burgert I. 2011. Plant stems: Functional design and mechanics. Annual Review of Materials Research, 41(1): 169–193.

Sunmonu N, Kudo G. 2014. How do sink and source activities influence the reproduction and vegetative growth of spring ephemeral herbs under different light conditions? Journal of Plant Research, 127(4): 503–511.

Swidrak I, Gruber A, Oberhuber W. 2014. Xylem and phloem phenology in co-occurring conifers exposed to drought. Trees - Structure and Function, 28(4): 1161–1171.

Telaumbanua PH, Nazara RV, Zebua HP, Samudin S, Monde A, Purba JH, Sulistiyowati R, Oksifa A, Harti R, Telaumbanua ED, Kartini NL, Khide P, Mendrofa T. 2024. Dasar-Dasar Agronomi. Azzia Karya Bersama.

Trugman AT, Anderegg LDL. 2024. Source vs sink limitations on tree growth: from physiological mechanisms to evolutionary constraints and terrestrial carbon cycle implications. New Phytologist, 245(1): 966–981.

Vadera H, Pandya J, Mehta S. 2025. A review: The Elucidation of Source-Sink Relationship. Life Sciences Leaflets, 179(1): 12-35.

Van Campen JC. 2016. Early leaf development in rice (Oryza sativa L.): structure, physiology, and gene expression (Doctoral dissertation, University of Sheffield).

Waheed A, Qiao X, Muhammad M, Yiremaikebayi Y, Yingying X, Xu H, Wahab A. 2025. Plant root-mediated carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling in grassland ecosystems under land use and climate change. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 393: 109865.

Wang L, Ruan YL. 2016. Shoot-root carbon allocation, sugar signalling and their coupling with nitrogen uptake and assimilation. Functional Plant Biology, 43(2): 105–113.

Weraduwage SM, Chen J, Anozie FC, Morales A, Weise SE, Sharkey TD. 2015. The relationship between leaf area growth and biomass accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Frontiers in Plant Science, 6: 167.

White AC, Rogers A, Rees M, Osborne CP. 2016. How can we make plants grow faster? A source–sink perspective on growth rate. Journal of Experimental Botany, 67(1): 31–45.

Wu Y, Gong W, Wang Y, Yong T, Yang F, Liu W, Wu X, Du J, Shu K, Liu J, Liu C, Yang W. 2018. Leaf area and photosynthesis of newly emerged trifoliolate leaves are regulated by mature leaves in soybean. Journal of Plant Research, 131(4): 671–680.

Yang JH, Wang H. 2016. Molecular mechanisms for vascular development and secondary cell wall formation. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7(356): 1–8.

Yu SM, Lo SF, Ho THD . 2015. Source–sink communication: regulated by hormone, nutrient, and stress cross-signaling. Trends in Plant Science, 20(12): 844–857.

Zhang J, Zhang L, Wang Q, Liu J, Sun Y. 2023. Diurnal regulation of leaf photosynthesis is related to leaf-age-dependent changes in assimilate accumulation in Camellia oleifera. Plants, 12(11): 1–15.

Zhang N, Van Westreenen A, Evers JB, Anten NP, Marcelis LF. 2020. Quantifying the contribution of bent shoots to plant photosynthesis and biomass production of flower shoots in rose (Rosa hybrida) using a functional–structural plant model. Annals of Botany, 126(4): 587-599.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24198/kultivasi.v24i3.66455